History of Syria: A Descriptive Overview

Syria, a land of immense historical and cultural significance, has been a crossroads of civilizations for thousands of years. Situated in the heart of the Levant, Syria’s rich history spans ancient empires, religious transformations, colonial domination, and modern geopolitical conflicts. Its legacy is woven into the broader narrative of the ancient Near East and the contemporary Middle East.

Ancient Beginnings

Syria’s history traces back to the Paleolithic era, with archaeological evidence indicating early human settlements. By the 3rd millennium BCE, it became a hub of early urbanization, marked by cities like Ebla, Mari, and Ugarit. Ebla, in particular, was an influential city-state known for its cuneiform tablets, which shed light on trade, governance, and law.

The region’s fertile land and strategic location attracted the Akkadians, Amorites, and Hittites. It also played a pivotal role in the rise and spread of the Semitic peoples. By the 1st millennium BCE, Syria was under the control of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, followed by the Persian Achaemenids.

Hellenistic and Roman Influence

After Alexander the Great’s conquest in the 4th century BCE, Syria became a part of the Hellenistic world under the Seleucid Empire. The city of Antioch, founded during this period, became a major center of Greek culture, trade, and governance.

In 64 BCE, the Roman general Pompey annexed Syria, transforming it into a Roman province. Under Roman rule, Syria flourished, with Antioch emerging as one of the empire’s largest cities. The region played a crucial role in early Christianity, with cities like Damascus and Antioch becoming centers of Christian thought and leadership.

The Islamic Conquest

In the 7th century CE, Syria became a part of the rapidly expanding Islamic Caliphate. Damascus was established as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), marking a golden age of Islamic governance, art, and architecture. The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, built during this period, remains a symbol of the city’s historical importance.

The Abbasids later shifted the caliphate’s capital to Baghdad, but Syria remained a vital province. It was later ruled by various Islamic dynasties, including the Fatimids, Seljuks, and Ayyubids. Under the leadership of Salah ad-Din (Saladin), Syria was central to the resistance against the Crusaders during the 12th century.

Image Courtesy : The Umayyad Mosque of Damascus

Ottoman Era

In 1516, Syria came under Ottoman rule, which lasted for four centuries. The Ottomans maintained a relatively stable administration, fostering trade and cultural exchange. However, by the 19th century, the empire’s decline brought about significant economic and social challenges for the Syrian people.

Colonial Mandate and Independence

After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, Syria was placed under French mandate in 1920, as per the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This period was marked by resistance to foreign rule, culminating in the Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927). In 1946, Syria achieved independence, marking the beginning of its modern history.

Modern Syria

The post-independence period saw political instability, with numerous coups and changes in leadership. In 1963, the Ba’ath Party came to power, establishing a socialist regime. Hafez al-Assad assumed power in 1971, ushering in decades of authoritarian rule, succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad in 2000.

The 21st century has been tumultuous for Syria. The 2011 Arab Spring protests led to a brutal civil war, resulting in immense human suffering, displacement, and regional instability. The conflict drew in international powers, with devastating effects on Syria’s infrastructure and cultural heritage.

Cultural and Historical Legacy

Despite its modern struggles, Syria remains a treasure trove of history. Ancient cities like Aleppo, Damascus, and Palmyra are testaments to its enduring significance. These cities, with their mix of ancient ruins, medieval architecture, and vibrant markets, reflect the rich tapestry of cultures that have shaped Syria over millennia.

The Regime of Hafez al-Assad (1971–2000)

Hafez al-Assad’s regime in Syria marked nearly three decades of authoritarian rule, characterized by centralized power, a strong security apparatus, and efforts to position Syria as a major player in regional geopolitics. His presidency, beginning in 1971, shaped modern Syria’s political and social fabric and left a legacy of stability and repression.

Image Courtesy : Al Assad family

Rise to Power

Hafez al-Assad, a member of the Alawite minority, rose through the ranks of the Syrian military and the Ba’ath Party. He became the Minister of Defense in 1966 and played a crucial role in the Ba’ath Party’s military coup that year. After internal power struggles, Assad orchestrated a bloodless coup in November 1970, dubbed the “Corrective Movement,” consolidating his authority. He formally assumed the presidency on March 22, 1971.

Centralized Authority

Assad built a highly centralized regime with himself at its core. Power was concentrated in the presidency, supported by a strong security and intelligence apparatus. He maintained tight control over the military and used it to suppress dissent. Key institutions were dominated by loyalists, many of whom were from his Alawite sect, ensuring loyalty to his rule.

The Ba’ath Party, while theoretically the ruling party, became a vehicle for Assad’s policies. Other political parties were allowed to operate only within the confines of the National Progressive Front, a coalition controlled by the Ba’athists.

Domestic Policies

1. Stability and Economic Development:
   • Assad’s regime brought relative stability to Syria, ending the cycle of coups and political instability that had plagued the country.
   • He pursued state-led economic policies, focusing on infrastructure development, industrialization, and land reforms. However, corruption and inefficiency hampered economic progress.
2. Authoritarian Governance:
   • Political dissent was harshly repressed. Opposition figures, including members of the Muslim Brotherhood and other political factions, faced imprisonment, exile, or execution.
   • The state maintained a pervasive surveillance system, with the secret police (mukhabarat) playing a central role in silencing critics.
3. The Hama Massacre (1982):
   • In response to an armed uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood in Hama, Assad’s regime launched a brutal military assault on the city, killing thousands of civilians. This event became a symbol of the regime’s willingness to use extreme force to maintain control.

Image Courtesy : Hafez al-Assad, Ebrahim Yazdi, Mostafa Chamran and Mehdi Bazargan, Year 1980

Foreign Policy

1. Arab Nationalism:
   • Assad portrayed himself as a champion of Arab nationalism, opposing Western and Israeli influence in the region.
   • He aligned Syria with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, securing military and economic support.
2. Conflict with Israel:
   • Assad was a staunch opponent of Israel. He led Syria during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, though the war ended inconclusively.
   • The Golan Heights, occupied by Israel since 1967, remained a central issue in Syrian foreign policy.
3. Lebanon:
   • Assad intervened in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), deploying Syrian troops to exert influence over the neighboring country. This intervention solidified Syria’s role as a dominant power in Lebanon.
4. Regional Alliances and Rivalries:
   • While Assad sought to build alliances with other Arab states, his relationship with Iraq’s Ba’athist regime was marked by hostility, stemming from ideological and personal rivalries.

Social and Sectarian Dimensions

Hafez al-Assad’s regime managed to maintain a delicate balance in Syria’s diverse society, which includes Sunnis, Alawites, Christians, Druze, and other groups. He promoted a secular state and emphasized Arab identity to downplay sectarian divisions. However, the dominance of Alawites in key positions fueled resentment among Sunni Muslims, contributing to underlying tensions.

Legacy

Hafez al-Assad’s presidency was marked by paradoxes:

• Achievements: Stability, improved infrastructure, and Syria’s rise as a regional power.
• Repression: Authoritarian rule, human rights abuses, and suppression of dissent.

When Hafez al-Assad died in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him, marking the continuation of the Assad dynasty. Hafez left behind a country with a powerful state apparatus but significant societal and economic challenges, many of which would erupt in the years to come.

The Regime of Bashar al-Assad (2000–Present)

Bashar al-Assad’s regime, which began in 2000, has been characterized by authoritarian governance, attempts at economic reform, and a catastrophic civil war. Bashar succeeded his father, Hafez al-Assad, inheriting a tightly controlled state apparatus. While his early years in power hinted at potential reform, his rule has ultimately been marked by repression, conflict, and a complex entanglement in regional and global geopolitics.

Image Courtesy : Bashar al-Assad

Rise to Power

Bashar al-Assad was an ophthalmologist with limited political experience when he became president following his father’s death. To facilitate his succession, Syria’s parliament swiftly amended the constitution, lowering the minimum age for the presidency from 40 to 34. On July 10, 2000, Bashar was elected president in a referendum, officially beginning his rule.

Early Years (2000–2011): Reform and Continuity

1. The Damascus Spring:
   • Bashar’s ascent raised hopes for political liberalization. In the early 2000s, intellectuals and activists called for democratic reforms, greater freedoms, and the release of political prisoners in what became known as the “Damascus Spring.”
   • However, the regime quickly repressed these movements, signaling its unwillingness to tolerate political dissent.
2. Economic Reforms:
   • Bashar introduced modest economic reforms aimed at modernizing Syria’s economy, including liberalizing certain sectors, encouraging foreign investment, and promoting private enterprise.
   • These reforms benefited a narrow elite while exacerbating inequality and unemployment, particularly in rural areas, contributing to discontent.
3. Authoritarian Governance:
   • The security and intelligence services, a cornerstone of his father’s rule, remained central under Bashar. Opposition was suppressed, and political parties outside the Ba’ath Party-controlled National Progressive Front were banned.
   • Corruption and nepotism persisted, with key sectors of the economy dominated by loyalists and members of Bashar’s inner circle, including his extended family.

Civil War and Crisis (2011–Present)

1. The Arab Spring Protests:
   • Inspired by uprisings across the Arab world, Syrians took to the streets in 2011, demanding political reform, greater freedoms, and an end to corruption.
   • The regime responded with violent crackdowns, leading to widespread protests and eventually a full-scale civil war.
2. The Civil War:
   • The conflict evolved into a complex, multi-sided war involving the Syrian government, various opposition groups, Kurdish factions, and extremist organizations like ISIS.
   • The regime used extreme measures, including chemical weapons, indiscriminate bombings, and sieges of civilian areas. These actions were widely condemned internationally and contributed to massive casualties and displacement.
   • Over 500,000 people have been killed, and millions displaced, with much of Syria’s infrastructure destroyed.
3. Regional and International Dynamics:
   • The war drew in major global and regional powers. Iran and Russia supported Bashar’s regime militarily and financially, while the United States, Turkey, and Gulf states backed various opposition groups.
   • Russia’s intervention in 2015 was pivotal in turning the tide of the war in favor of Assad’s government, ensuring its survival.
4. Humanitarian Crisis:
   • The conflict created one of the worst humanitarian crises of the 21st century. Millions of Syrians sought refuge abroad, and millions more were internally displaced. Poverty, hunger, and disease have become rampant.

Governance in the War’s Aftermath

As of 2024, Bashar al-Assad remains in power, controlling most of Syria, though parts of the country remain outside his government’s reach. Challenges include:

• Economic Collapse: Syria faces severe economic hardships, exacerbated by international sanctions, corruption, and the destruction of infrastructure during the war.
• Reconstruction: Limited resources and international isolation hinder efforts to rebuild the country.
• Political Isolation: While some Arab states have sought to normalize relations with Assad in recent years, much of the international community continues to view him as a pariah.

Legacy and Controversy

Bashar al-Assad’s legacy is deeply polarizing. Supporters credit him with resisting Western intervention and maintaining Syria’s sovereignty. Critics highlight his brutal suppression of dissent, war crimes, and inability to address the root causes of the uprising. His rule has transformed Syria into a symbol of state failure, leaving a fractured nation with uncertain prospects for recovery.

The Syrian Civil War: Rebel Factions, Global Involvement, and Competing Interests

The Syrian Civil War, which began as a popular uprising in 2011, has become one of the most complex and devastating conflicts of modern times. The war is marked by a fractured opposition, the rise of extremist groups, and significant involvement from regional and global powers pursuing divergent interests. This section examines the key players among the rebels, the roles of different continents and nations, and their motivations.

Rebel Factions and the Opposition

1.      Free Syrian Army (FSA):

1. Initially formed by defectors from the Syrian military, the FSA emerged as the primary armed opposition to the Assad regime.
2. Over time, the group fragmented into various factions due to lack of coordination, ideological differences, and insufficient external support.

2.      Islamist Groups:

2. Groups like Ahrar al-Sham and Jaysh al-Islam gained prominence, advocating for an Islamic state in Syria. These factions often clashed with both secular rebels and extremist groups like ISIS.

3.      Extremist Organizations:

3. ISIS (Islamic State): Emerging from the chaos of the war, ISIS seized large swathes of Syria and Iraq, declaring a “caliphate” in 2014. Their brutal tactics, including mass executions and enslavement, drew global condemnation.
4. Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS): An al-Qaeda affiliate, HTS became dominant in the northwestern province of Idlib, enforcing strict Islamist rule in its territories.

4.      Kurdish Groups:

4. The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), led by the Kurdish YPG (People’s Protection Units), sought autonomy for Kurdish regions in northern Syria.
5. The Kurds became a key ally of the United States in the fight against ISIS but faced opposition from Turkey, which viewed the YPG as an extension of the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party), a designated terrorist group.

Global and Regional Powers: Motivations and Actions

The Syrian war became a proxy conflict, with external actors pursuing their interests through direct intervention, funding, and arming local factions.

Middle East

1.      Iran:

1. Iran has been a staunch ally of the Assad regime, viewing Syria as a critical link in its “axis of resistance” against Israel and Western influence.
2. Iranian support included financial aid, arms, and the deployment of fighters, including Hezbollah militants from Lebanon.

2.      Turkey:

2. Turkey initially supported opposition groups, aiming to topple Assad and expand its influence.
3. Later, Ankara shifted its focus to countering Kurdish forces near its border, conducting military operations to establish “safe zones” and resettle Syrian refugees.

3.      Saudi Arabia and Gulf States:

3. Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the UAE backed opposition factions to counter Iranian influence in Syria.
4. However, support dwindled as the opposition fragmented and extremist groups gained dominance.

4.      Israel:

4. Israel maintained a policy of limited engagement, focusing on preventing Iranian entrenchment near its borders.
5. It conducted numerous airstrikes targeting Iranian and Hezbollah forces in Syria.

Global Powers

1.      United States:

1. The U.S. initially supported moderate rebel groups but shifted its focus to defeating ISIS, aligning with the SDF in northeastern Syria.
2. American troops established a presence in Syria to combat ISIS and counter Iranian influence, though their numbers have been reduced in recent years.

2.      Russia:

2. Russia intervened militarily in 2015, providing air support to the Assad regime. This intervention was pivotal in turning the tide of the war in Assad’s favor.
3. Moscow’s involvement solidified its strategic foothold in the Middle East, including a naval base in Tartus and an airbase in Latakia.

3.      European Union:

3. European nations played a limited role, focusing on humanitarian aid and addressing the refugee crisis that saw millions of Syrians flee to Europe.
4. Several European countries also contributed to coalition efforts against ISIS.

4.      China:

4. China maintained a more neutral stance, emphasizing the need for a political solution while opposing external intervention.
5. Beijing provided limited humanitarian aid but avoided direct involvement in the conflict.

Image Courtesy : U.S. Marines with the 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit fire an M777 Howitzer during a fire mission in northern Syria as part of Operation Inherent Resolve, Mar. 24, 2017

Competing Interests

1.      Geopolitical Influence:

1. For Iran and Russia, supporting Assad ensured the survival of a key ally in the region and strengthened their geopolitical standing.
2. The U.S. and its allies aimed to counter extremism and limit Iranian and Russian influence.

2.      Energy and Trade Routes:

2. Control over Syria has implications for energy pipelines and trade routes connecting the Middle East to Europe.

3.      Counterterrorism:

3. The rise of ISIS and other extremist groups made Syria a focal point of global counterterrorism efforts.

4.      Sectarian Divides:

4. The Sunni-Shia rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran played out in Syria, exacerbating the conflict’s sectarian dimensions.

Current Status and Challenges

As of 2024, Bashar al-Assad has regained control of most of Syria, with support from Russia and Iran. However, the country remains divided:

• The northwest is dominated by HTS and other rebel factions.
• The northeast is under the control of Kurdish-led forces and their U.S. allies.
• Turkish-controlled areas exist along the northern border.

The war has left Syria devastated, with millions of displaced people, economic collapse, and lingering instability. Efforts at reconstruction and reconciliation are hindered by ongoing international sanctions, lack of resources, and unresolved political grievances.

The Syrian war remains a cautionary tale of how internal conflicts can escalate into global proxy wars with far-reaching consequences.

Image Courtesy : HandsOffSyria emergency rally & march “Fund Jobs, Schools, & Hospitals — Not War in Syria!”

Present Civil Conditions in Syria: A Humanitarian Perspective

Syria’s civil war, ongoing since 2011, has left the country in a state of devastation. The conflict has caused catastrophic damage to infrastructure, institutions, and social fabric. The suffering of the Syrian people is immense, with millions facing dire conditions in terms of security, shelter, and basic needs. Here is an overview of the current civil conditions and the hardships endured by common Syrians.

Displacement and Habitat

1. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs):
   • Over 6.6 million Syrians have fled the country, seeking refuge in neighboring countries like Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan, as well as in Europe.
   • Another 6.7 million are internally displaced, often living in overcrowded camps or makeshift shelters lacking proper sanitation, clean water, and safety.
2. Urban Devastation:
   • Many cities, including Aleppo, Homs, and Raqqa, have been reduced to rubble. Basic infrastructure—hospitals, schools, water systems—has been extensively destroyed.
   • Reconstruction is limited, and many displaced people are unable to return to their homes due to destruction, lingering insecurity, or fear of persecution.
3. Living Conditions in Camps:
   • Camps for IDPs and refugees are overcrowded and undersupplied. Basic needs such as food, clean water, and medical care are often unmet.
   • Harsh weather conditions, particularly in winter, exacerbate suffering, leading to illnesses and deaths.

Economic Collapse

1. Hyperinflation and Poverty:
   • The Syrian currency has collapsed, leading to skyrocketing prices of basic goods. Many families struggle to afford food, fuel, and other necessities.
   • Over 90% of Syrians live in poverty, with many surviving on international aid.
2. Unemployment and Livelihoods:
   • The war has decimated industries, agriculture, and trade, leaving millions without work.
   • Farmers, particularly in the drought-stricken northeast, face challenges due to water scarcity, landmines, and destroyed infrastructure.
3. Sanctions and Isolation:
   • International sanctions targeting the Assad regime have further crippled the economy, limiting access to resources and complicating humanitarian efforts.

Healthcare Crisis

1. Destroyed Healthcare System:
   • Over half of Syria’s healthcare facilities have been destroyed or rendered non-functional.
   • There is a severe shortage of medical supplies, doctors, and functioning hospitals, particularly in opposition-held areas.
2. Spread of Diseases:
   • Poor sanitation and crowded living conditions have led to outbreaks of diseases like cholera, typhoid, and COVID-19.
   • Malnutrition is widespread, especially among children, due to food shortages and limited healthcare.

Education and Future Generations

1. Disrupted Education:
   • Millions of Syrian children are out of school, with many having missed years of education.
   • Schools have been destroyed or repurposed as shelters, and the lack of stability makes regular schooling nearly impossible.
2. Child Exploitation:
   • Many children are forced into labor to support their families, while others are recruited by armed groups.
   • Child marriage has also increased as families struggle to cope with poverty.

Human Rights and Security

1. Fear of Repression:
   • In government-controlled areas, residents face arbitrary arrests, disappearances, and torture by security forces.
   • Those suspected of opposing the regime often live in constant fear of persecution.
2. Violence and Instability:
   • While the intensity of the war has diminished in many areas, sporadic violence persists. This includes clashes between rival factions, Turkish military operations, and bombings by extremist groups.
3. Landmines and Unexploded Ordinance:
   • Large swathes of land are littered with landmines and unexploded bombs, posing a daily threat to civilians, particularly children and farmers.

Humanitarian Aid and Challenges

1. Aid Dependency:
   • Over 70% of the population relies on humanitarian assistance to survive. Aid is delivered through international organizations but is often insufficient due to funding shortfalls and logistical challenges.
2. Restricted Access:
   • Humanitarian agencies face difficulties in reaching certain areas due to conflict, government restrictions, and insecurity.
   • Aid delivery is politicized, with some areas receiving less support due to their control by opposition forces or the Assad regime.

Image Courtesy : Protest against U.S. military attacks in Syria

Emotional and Psychological Toll

1. Trauma:
   • Years of war, displacement, and loss have left deep psychological scars on Syrians, particularly children.
   • Many suffer from PTSD, depression, and anxiety with limited access to mental health services.
2. Loss of Community and Culture:
   • Families and communities have been fragmented, and cultural heritage sites have been destroyed.
   • The sense of identity and continuity has been deeply shaken for many Syrians.

Resilience Amidst Suffering

Despite the hardships, Syrians demonstrate remarkable resilience. Many continue to rebuild their lives, educate their children, and create small businesses amid the ruins. Local and international NGOs play a crucial role in alleviating suffering, though their resources are stretched thin.

Conclusion

The civil condition in Syria remains dire, with ordinary citizens bearing the brunt of the conflict’s consequences. The international community continues to grapple with how to address the humanitarian crisis, facilitate reconstruction, and achieve a political resolution. For millions of Syrians, daily life is a struggle for survival, yet hope persists for a better future.